The Role of Positive Reinforcement and Contingency Management in Positive Systems Approach (PSA)

Positive reinforcement is a cornerstone of the Positive Systems Approach (PSA), a methodology designed to manage disruptive behaviours by fostering human connection and trust. By providing frequent, non-contingent positive interactions (see previous Blog post of Aug. 19 =, 2024; Positive Systems), caregivers can build meaningful relationships with individuals exhibiting challenging behaviours. This increase in positive reinforcement helps reduce anxiety, encourages natural positive behaviours, and balances negative interactions, creating a supportive environment conducive to behavioural improvement. 

Designing a Comprehensive Contingency Management System (Token Economy)

A Contingency Management System, often implemented as a token economy, is an effective strategy within PSA to promote alternative and incompatible behaviours. This system involves providing tangible rewards (tokens) contingent upon the display of desired behaviours, which can later be exchanged for preferred items or activities.

Steps to Create a Token Economy

A Token Economy is a structured behavioural reinforcement system that encourages positive behaviour by offering tokens as immediate rewards. These tokens can later be exchanged for preferred rewards, reinforcing desirable behaviour while reducing maladaptive actions. Below is a step-by-step guide to designing an effective Token Economy system:

1. Identify Target Behaviours

Before implementing a Token Economy, it is crucial to clearly define the behaviours to be encouraged (positive behaviours) and those to be reduced (challenging behaviours). These behaviours should be:

• Specific: Instead of vague goals like “be good,” define behaviours such as “use words instead of hitting when frustrated.”

• Measurable: Ensure behaviours can be tracked, e.g., “use a stress ball instead of yelling at least three times per day.”

• Achievable: Goals should be developmentally appropriate and realistic for the individual’s abilities.

Example

• Increase: Using a calm voice, following directions, engaging in self-regulation strategies (deep breathing, counting).

• Decrease: Physical aggression (hitting, kicking), property destruction, verbal outbursts.

2. Select Tokens

Tokens should be tangible, portable, and easy to distribute while ensuring they are safe and engaging for the individual. They can take various forms:

• Physical Tokens: Plastic coins, poker chips, stickers, marbles.

• Point-Based System: Digital points on an app or written tally marks.

• Personalized Items: Themed tokens featuring the individual's favorite characters, colors, or interests.

Important Considerations:

• Tokens should be easily identifiable to avoid confusion.

• They should not be easily counterfeited or replicated (e.g., handwritten points should be carefully tracked).

• The individual should find the tokens meaningful, even though they hold no inherent value.

3. Establish Reinforcers (Rewards)

Tokens gain value when they can be exchanged for reinforcers—items or activities that the individual highly prefers. The best reinforcers are those that naturally motivate the individual.

Types of Reinforcers:

• Tangible Rewards: Snacks, small toys, stickers.

• Social Rewards: High-fives, verbal praise, extra attention.

• Activity-Based Rewards: Screen time, choosing a game, preferred seat in class.

• Privilege-Based Rewards: Extra break time, leading an activity, choosing a story to read.

Key Considerations:

• Conduct a reinforcer assessment to determine what is motivating for the individual. Preferences may change over time, so regularly reassess.

• Have a mix of short-term and long-term reinforcers. Some rewards should be immediately accessible (e.g., stickers), while others require saving tokens (e.g., a trip to the park).

4. Set Token Values

Each reinforcer should have a clear cost in tokens, balancing between achievability and motivation. If rewards are too expensive, the individual may lose interest. If they are too cheap, the system may lose effectiveness.

Steps for Setting Token Values:

1. Determine a base value (e.g., each positive behaviour earns 1-3 tokens).

2. Categorize reinforcers by value (e.g., small rewards cost 3-5 tokens, while big rewards cost 10-20 tokens).

3. Adjust token prices over time as the individual’s behaviour improves and they become more familiar with the system.

Example Token Value Chart:

Reinforcer	Token Cost
Sticker	2 tokens
5 minutes of tablet time	5 tokens
Small toy from a prize box	10 tokens
Extra 10-minute break	15 tokens
Choice of special activity	20 tokens

5. Develop a Reinforcement Schedule

A reinforcement schedule determines how often tokens are awarded. There are two main types:

1. Continuous Reinforcement (Initial Phase)

• Tokens are given immediately and consistently after every desired behaviour.

• Best for introducing new behaviours or working with individuals who need high motivation.

2. Intermittent Reinforcement (Maintenance Phase)

• Tokens are given occasionally rather than every time.

• Best for maintaining behaviours and encouraging long-term motivation.

Example of a Reinforcement Schedule:

• Week 1-2: Earn a token every time the target behaviour is displayed.

• Week 3-4: Earn a token most of the time (e.g., every 2 out of 3 times).

• Week 5+: Gradually move to an intermittent schedule to sustain behaviour.

6. Implement the System

Once the system is designed, it’s time to introduce it to the individual.

Steps for a Smooth Implementation:

1. Clearly explain the rules: Use simple language or visual supports.

2. Demonstrate how to earn tokens: Role-play or use modeling to reinforce understanding.

3. Ensure consistency: Caregivers, teachers, or therapists should all follow the same rules to avoid confusion.

4. Provide immediate feedback: Give tokens right after the behaviour to reinforce the connection.

5. Track progress: Use a chart, token board, or app to visually represent earned tokens.

7. Monitor and Adjust the System

A Token Economy is not static—it should evolve based on effectiveness.

Regular Evaluation Questions:

• Is the individual motivated by the reinforcers?

• Are tokens being given frequently enough?

• Are undesirable behaviours decreasing?

• Should token values or reinforcers be adjusted?

Common Adjustments:

• Increase reinforcement difficulty: If the behaviour is well-established, require more effort before earning tokens.

• Modify reinforcers: Swap out rewards if motivation decreases.

• Expand token exchange times: Instead of redeeming tokens immediately, encourage saving for larger rewards.

A well-structured Token Economy system is a powerful tool for shaping behaviour. It provides clear expectations, immediate positive reinforcement, and motivation for individuals to engage in alternative, positive behaviours rather than disruptive actions. When combined with unconditional positive regard, as emphasized in the Positive Systems Approach, a Token Economy can lead to lasting behavioural improvements while fostering trust and emotional security.

Case Study: Implementing a Token Economy for a Neurodivergent Individual with Aggressive Behaviour

Background

John is a 16-year-old with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and intermittent explosive disorder (IED). He exhibits frequent and severe aggression, including hitting, yelling, and throwing objects, particularly when he becomes frustrated or overwhelmed. His school and family have struggled to manage these behaviours, leading to social isolation and academic difficulties.

John has strong visual learning skills and is highly motivated by technology, particularly video games. A functional behaviour assessment (FBA) indicates that his aggression often stems from difficulties with emotional regulation and communication.

Step 1: Identifying Target Behaviours

After analyzing John’s behaviour patterns, the team sets the following goals:

✅ Increase:

• Using calm words to express frustration instead of aggression.

• Using a stress ball or deep breathing instead of throwing objects.

• Following simple instructions within two prompts.

❌ Decrease:

• Physical aggression (hitting, kicking, pushing).

• Verbal aggression (yelling, threatening others).

• Property destruction (throwing objects, breaking materials).

Step 2: Selecting Tokens

Given John's strong interest in video games, the team decides on a digital token system using a visual token board on a tablet. Each time John engages in a positive behaviour, he earns a virtual coin displayed on the screen.

Step 3: Establishing Reinforcers

A preference assessment reveals that John is most motivated by:

• Extra time on his favorite game (Minecraft).

• Earning special privileges, such as choosing music during break time.

• Access to sensory activities, such as using a weighted blanket.

A reward menu is created, allowing John to choose what he wants to work toward.

Step 4: Setting Token Values

John starts with a simple exchange system:

• 5 tokens = 5 minutes of extra game time.

• 10 tokens = Choosing a favorite classroom activity.

• 20 tokens = Special Friday reward (pizza party, extra break time).

To encourage early success, rewards are easily attainable at first, then adjusted as behaviour improves.

Step 5: Developing a Reinforcement Schedule

John begins with continuous reinforcement—he earns a token every time he uses a coping strategy instead of aggression.After two weeks, the team transitions to intermittent reinforcement, giving tokens less frequently but still ensuring consistency.

Step 6: Implementing the System

John's teacher and family introduce the token economy with visual supports and a clear explanation:

• A video tutorial demonstrates how to earn and use tokens.

• A behaviour contract outlines expectations and rewards.

• Tokens are awarded immediately after positive behaviours to reinforce learning.

During the first week, John earns 5-10 tokens per day.

Step 7: Monitoring and Adjusting

After four weeks, data shows:

• A 40% decrease in aggressive incidents.

• John now verbalizes frustration in 60% of situations instead of acting out.

• He is saving tokens for bigger rewards, showing improved impulse control.

Adjustments made:

• Increasing the cost of small rewards to encourage long-term goal setting.

• Adding new reinforcers (e.g., a "helper role" in class, a social lunch pass).

• Shifting to delayed reinforcement, where John earns tokens throughout the day but exchanges them at set times to mimic real-world reward structures.

Outcome

Within three months, John has transitioned from frequent outbursts to occasional, manageable frustration. His aggression has dropped by over 70%, and he is independently using coping strategies.

This case study highlights how a structured Token Economy, tailored to an individual’s needs and interests, can successfully encourage alternative and incompatible behaviours. By pairing positive reinforcement with a structured contingency management system, neurodivergent individuals can develop self-regulation skills and reduce disruptive behaviours in a supportive, motivation-driven way.

Why a Contingency Management System is a Perfect Fit for the Positive Systems Approach (PSA)

A Contingency Management System (CMS)—such as a Token Economy—aligns seamlessly with the Positive Systems Approach (PSA) because both frameworks emphasize reinforcement over punishment, increasing the density of positive interactions, and creating structured, predictable environments for individuals with challenging behaviours.

Below are the key reasons why a CMS is an ideal match for PSA:

1. Emphasizes Positive Reinforcement Over Punishment

PSA is rooted in unconditional positive regard, meaning individuals should be met with understanding and support rather than punitive measures. CMS fits perfectly because it:

✅ Focuses on rewarding positive behaviours rather than punishing negative ones.

✅ Encourages alternative behaviours that are incompatible with disruptive actions.

✅ Builds a sense of accomplishment and self-efficacy, reducing reliance on external control.

🔹 Example: Instead of punishing a student for yelling, a CMS rewards them for using a calm voice. Over time, they naturally shift to the positive behaviour.

2. Increases the Density of Reinforcement, Just Like PSA

One of PSA’s core principles is to significantly increase reinforcement density—ensuring that individuals with challenging behaviours experience frequent, meaningful positive interactions. A CMS achieves this by:

✅ Creating frequent reinforcement opportunities throughout the day.

✅ Ensuring that positive behaviours are acknowledged immediately, strengthening behaviour change.

✅ Offering structured motivation that keeps individuals engaged.

🔹 Example: A student who struggles with task avoidance receives a token every time they complete a step in their assignment, ensuring frequent reinforcement rather than waiting until the task is fully completed.

3. Provides Predictability and Structure

Many individuals with challenging behaviours—especially neurodivergent individuals—struggle with unpredictability and unclear expectations. PSA stresses clear, structured systems to reduce anxiety and promote success. A CMS perfectly aligns with this by:

✅ Establishing a clear and predictable reward system—individuals know exactly what to expect.

✅ Using visual aids (token boards, charts) to make expectations concrete.

✅ Encouraging consistent reinforcement, helping individuals feel safe and supported.

🔹 Example: A child with ADHD benefits from a clear visual token board that reminds them what they are working toward, reducing impulsivity and frustration.

4. Encourages Self-Regulation and Independence

A key PSA goal is to help individuals develop self-regulation skills so they can manage their emotions and behaviours without constant external control. CMS supports this by:

✅ Encouraging delayed gratification, as individuals learn to save tokens for bigger rewards.

✅ Teaching cause-and-effect relationships between behaviours and outcomes.

✅ Gradually shifting control from adults enforcing rules to the individual managing their own behaviour.

🔹 Example: A teen with oppositional defiant disorder learns to self-monitor by tracking their tokens, gradually internalizing the importance of managing emotions and behaviours independently.

5. Strengthens Relationships and Trust

PSA emphasizes positive relationships and trust-building as the foundation for behavioural change. CMS complements this approach by:

✅ Reducing power struggles, as reinforcement is framed as an opportunity rather than forced compliance.

✅ Strengthening teacher-student or caregiver-child bonds through shared goals and encouragement.

✅ Creating collaborative motivation, where the individual works with caregivers rather than feeling controlled.

🔹 Example: A parent implementing a CMS with their child focuses on cooperative goal-setting, reinforcing that the system is supportive, not punitive.

Conclusion

A Contingency Management System aligns perfectly with the Positive Systems Approach because both emphasize positive reinforcement, structure, predictability, self-regulation, and relationship-building. By using a CMS within PSA, individuals with challenging behaviours experience frequent success, motivation, and trust, leading to lasting behavioural improvements without reliance on punitive measures.